nodes.coffee

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- # nodes.coffee

- ¶

  `nodes.coffee` contains all of the node classes for the syntax tree. Most nodes are created as the result of actions in the grammar, but some are created by other nodes as a method of code generation. To convert the syntax tree into a string of JavaScript code, call `compile()` on the root.

      Error.stackTraceLimit = Infinity

      {Scope} = require './scope'
      {isUnassignable, JS_FORBIDDEN} = require './lexer'

- ¶

  Import the helpers we plan to use.

      {compact, flatten, extend, merge, del, starts, ends, some,
      addLocationDataFn, locationDataToString, throwSyntaxError} = require './helpers'

- ¶

  Functions required by parser

      exports.extend = extend
      exports.addLocationDataFn = addLocationDataFn

- ¶

  Constant functions for nodes that don’t need customization.

      YES     = -> yes
      NO      = -> no
      THIS    = -> this
      NEGATE  = -> @negated = not @negated; this

- ¶

  ### CodeFragment

- ¶

  The various nodes defined below all compile to a collection of CodeFragment objects. A CodeFragments is a block of generated code, and the location in the source file where the code came from. CodeFragments can be assembled together into working code just by catting together all the CodeFragments’ `code` snippets, in order.

      exports.CodeFragment = class CodeFragment
        constructor: (parent, code) ->
          @code = "#{code}"
          @locationData = parent?.locationData
          @type = parent?.constructor?.name or 'unknown'

        toString:   ->
          "#{@code}#{if @locationData then ": " + locationDataToString(@locationData) else ''}"

- ¶

  Convert an array of CodeFragments into a string.

      fragmentsToText = (fragments) ->
        (fragment.code for fragment in fragments).join('')

- ¶

  ### Base

- ¶

  The Base is the abstract base class for all nodes in the syntax tree. Each subclass implements the `compileNode` method, which performs the code generation for that node. To compile a node to JavaScript, call `compile` on it, which wraps `compileNode` in some generic extra smarts, to know when the generated code needs to be wrapped up in a closure. An options hash is passed and cloned throughout, containing information about the environment from higher in the tree (such as if a returned value is being requested by the surrounding function), information about the current scope, and indentation level.

      exports.Base = class Base

        compile: (o, lvl) ->
          fragmentsToText @compileToFragments o, lvl

- ¶

  Common logic for determining whether to wrap this node in a closure before compiling it, or to compile directly. We need to wrap if this node is a statement, and it’s not a pureStatement, and we’re not at the top level of a block (which would be unnecessary), and we haven’t already been asked to return the result (because statements know how to return results).

        compileToFragments: (o, lvl) ->
          o        = extend {}, o
          o.level  = lvl if lvl
          node     = @unfoldSoak(o) or this
          node.tab = o.indent
          if o.level is LEVEL_TOP or not node.isStatement(o)
            node.compileNode o
          else
            node.compileClosure o

- ¶

  Statements converted into expressions via closure-wrapping share a scope object with their parent closure, to preserve the expected lexical scope.

        compileClosure: (o) ->
          if jumpNode = @jumps()
            jumpNode.error 'cannot use a pure statement in an expression'
          o.sharedScope = yes
          func = new Code [], Block.wrap [this]
          args = []
          if (argumentsNode = @contains isLiteralArguments) or @contains isLiteralThis
            args = [new ThisLiteral]
            if argumentsNode
              meth = 'apply'
              args.push new IdentifierLiteral 'arguments'
            else
              meth = 'call'
            func = new Value func, [new Access new PropertyName meth]
          parts = (new Call func, args).compileNode o
          if func.isGenerator or func.base?.isGenerator
            parts.unshift @makeCode "(yield* "
            parts.push    @makeCode ")"
          parts

- ¶

  If the code generation wishes to use the result of a complex expression in multiple places, ensure that the expression is only ever evaluated once, by assigning it to a temporary variable. Pass a level to precompile.

  If `level` is passed, then returns `[val, ref]`, where `val` is the compiled value, and `ref` is the compiled reference. If `level` is not passed, this returns `[val, ref]` where the two values are raw nodes which have not been compiled.

        cache: (o, level, isComplex) ->
          complex = if isComplex? then isComplex this else @isComplex()
          if complex
            ref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'ref'
            sub = new Assign ref, this
            if level then [sub.compileToFragments(o, level), [@makeCode(ref.value)]] else [sub, ref]
          else
            ref = if level then @compileToFragments o, level else this
            [ref, ref]

        cacheToCodeFragments: (cacheValues) ->
          [fragmentsToText(cacheValues[0]), fragmentsToText(cacheValues[1])]

- ¶

  Construct a node that returns the current node’s result. Note that this is overridden for smarter behavior for many statement nodes (e.g. If, For)…

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          me = @unwrapAll()
          if res
            new Call new Literal("#{res}.push"), [me]
          else
            new Return me

- ¶

  Does this node, or any of its children, contain a node of a certain kind? Recursively traverses down the children nodes and returns the first one that verifies `pred`. Otherwise return undefined. `contains` does not cross scope boundaries.

        contains: (pred) ->
          node = undefined
          @traverseChildren no, (n) ->
            if pred n
              node = n
              return no
          node

- ¶

  Pull out the last non-comment node of a node list.

        lastNonComment: (list) ->
          i = list.length
          return list[i] while i-- when list[i] not instanceof Comment
          null

- ¶

  `toString` representation of the node, for inspecting the parse tree. This is what `coffee --nodes` prints out.

        toString: (idt = '', name = @constructor.name) ->
          tree = '\n' + idt + name
          tree += '?' if @soak
          @eachChild (node) -> tree += node.toString idt + TAB
          tree

- ¶

  Passes each child to a function, breaking when the function returns `false`.

        eachChild: (func) ->
          return this unless @children
          for attr in @children when @[attr]
            for child in flatten [@[attr]]
              return this if func(child) is false
          this

        traverseChildren: (crossScope, func) ->
          @eachChild (child) ->
            recur = func(child)
            child.traverseChildren(crossScope, func) unless recur is no

        invert: ->
          new Op '!', this

        unwrapAll: ->
          node = this
          continue until node is node = node.unwrap()
          node

- ¶

  Default implementations of the common node properties and methods. Nodes will override these with custom logic, if needed.

        children: []

        isStatement     : NO
        jumps           : NO
        isComplex       : YES
        isChainable     : NO
        isAssignable    : NO
        isNumber        : NO

        unwrap     : THIS
        unfoldSoak : NO

- ¶

  Is this node used to assign a certain variable?

        assigns: NO

- ¶

  For this node and all descendents, set the location data to `locationData` if the location data is not already set.

        updateLocationDataIfMissing: (locationData) ->
          return this if @locationData
          @locationData = locationData

          @eachChild (child) ->
            child.updateLocationDataIfMissing locationData

- ¶

  Throw a SyntaxError associated with this node’s location.

        error: (message) ->
          throwSyntaxError message, @locationData

        makeCode: (code) ->
          new CodeFragment this, code

        wrapInBraces: (fragments) ->
          [].concat @makeCode('('), fragments, @makeCode(')')

- ¶

  `fragmentsList` is an array of arrays of fragments. Each array in fragmentsList will be concatonated together, with `joinStr` added in between each, to produce a final flat array of fragments.

        joinFragmentArrays: (fragmentsList, joinStr) ->
          answer = []
          for fragments,i in fragmentsList
            if i then answer.push @makeCode joinStr
            answer = answer.concat fragments
          answer

- ¶

  ### Block

- ¶

  The block is the list of expressions that forms the body of an indented block of code – the implementation of a function, a clause in an `if`, `switch`, or `try`, and so on…

      exports.Block = class Block extends Base
        constructor: (nodes) ->
          @expressions = compact flatten nodes or []

        children: ['expressions']

- ¶

  Tack an expression on to the end of this expression list.

        push: (node) ->
          @expressions.push node
          this

- ¶

  Remove and return the last expression of this expression list.

        pop: ->
          @expressions.pop()

- ¶

  Add an expression at the beginning of this expression list.

        unshift: (node) ->
          @expressions.unshift node
          this

- ¶

  If this Block consists of just a single node, unwrap it by pulling it back out.

        unwrap: ->
          if @expressions.length is 1 then @expressions[0] else this

- ¶

  Is this an empty block of code?

        isEmpty: ->
          not @expressions.length

        isStatement: (o) ->
          for exp in @expressions when exp.isStatement o
            return yes
          no

        jumps: (o) ->
          for exp in @expressions
            return jumpNode if jumpNode = exp.jumps o

- ¶

  A Block node does not return its entire body, rather it ensures that the final expression is returned.

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          len = @expressions.length
          while len--
            expr = @expressions[len]
            if expr not instanceof Comment
              @expressions[len] = expr.makeReturn res
              @expressions.splice(len, 1) if expr instanceof Return and not expr.expression
              break
          this

- ¶

  A Block is the only node that can serve as the root.

        compileToFragments: (o = {}, level) ->
          if o.scope then super o, level else @compileRoot o

- ¶

  Compile all expressions within the Block body. If we need to return the result, and it’s an expression, simply return it. If it’s a statement, ask the statement to do so.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @tab  = o.indent
          top   = o.level is LEVEL_TOP
          compiledNodes = []

          for node, index in @expressions

            node = node.unwrapAll()
            node = (node.unfoldSoak(o) or node)
            if node instanceof Block

- ¶

  This is a nested block. We don’t do anything special here like enclose it in a new scope; we just compile the statements in this block along with our own

              compiledNodes.push node.compileNode o
            else if top
              node.front = true
              fragments = node.compileToFragments o
              unless node.isStatement o
                fragments.unshift @makeCode "#{@tab}"
                fragments.push @makeCode ";"
              compiledNodes.push fragments
            else
              compiledNodes.push node.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
          if top
            if @spaced
              return [].concat @joinFragmentArrays(compiledNodes, '\n\n'), @makeCode("\n")
            else
              return @joinFragmentArrays(compiledNodes, '\n')
          if compiledNodes.length
            answer = @joinFragmentArrays(compiledNodes, ', ')
          else
            answer = [@makeCode "void 0"]
          if compiledNodes.length > 1 and o.level >= LEVEL_LIST then @wrapInBraces answer else answer

- ¶

  If we happen to be the top-level Block, wrap everything in a safety closure, unless requested not to. It would be better not to generate them in the first place, but for now, clean up obvious double-parentheses.

        compileRoot: (o) ->
          o.indent  = if o.bare then '' else TAB
          o.level   = LEVEL_TOP
          @spaced   = yes
          o.scope   = new Scope null, this, null, o.referencedVars ? []

- ¶

  Mark given local variables in the root scope as parameters so they don’t end up being declared on this block.

          o.scope.parameter name for name in o.locals or []
          prelude   = []
          unless o.bare
            preludeExps = for exp, i in @expressions
              break unless exp.unwrap() instanceof Comment
              exp
            rest = @expressions[preludeExps.length...]
            @expressions = preludeExps
            if preludeExps.length
              prelude = @compileNode merge(o, indent: '')
              prelude.push @makeCode "\n"
            @expressions = rest
          fragments = @compileWithDeclarations o
          return fragments if o.bare
          [].concat prelude, @makeCode("(function() {\n"), fragments, @makeCode("\n}).call(this);\n")

- ¶

  Compile the expressions body for the contents of a function, with declarations of all inner variables pushed up to the top.

        compileWithDeclarations: (o) ->
          fragments = []
          post = []
          for exp, i in @expressions
            exp = exp.unwrap()
            break unless exp instanceof Comment or exp instanceof Literal
          o = merge(o, level: LEVEL_TOP)
          if i
            rest = @expressions.splice i, 9e9
            [spaced,    @spaced] = [@spaced, no]
            [fragments, @spaced] = [@compileNode(o), spaced]
            @expressions = rest
          post = @compileNode o
          {scope} = o
          if scope.expressions is this
            declars = o.scope.hasDeclarations()
            assigns = scope.hasAssignments
            if declars or assigns
              fragments.push @makeCode '\n' if i
              fragments.push @makeCode "#{@tab}var "
              if declars
                fragments.push @makeCode scope.declaredVariables().join(', ')
              if assigns
                fragments.push @makeCode ",\n#{@tab + TAB}" if declars
                fragments.push @makeCode scope.assignedVariables().join(",\n#{@tab + TAB}")
              fragments.push @makeCode ";\n#{if @spaced then '\n' else ''}"
            else if fragments.length and post.length
              fragments.push @makeCode "\n"
          fragments.concat post

- ¶

  Wrap up the given nodes as a Block, unless it already happens to be one.

        @wrap: (nodes) ->
          return nodes[0] if nodes.length is 1 and nodes[0] instanceof Block
          new Block nodes

- ¶

  ### Literal

- ¶

  `Literal` is a base class for static values that can be passed through directly into JavaScript without translation, such as: strings, numbers, `true`, `false`, `null`…

      exports.Literal = class Literal extends Base
        constructor: (@value) ->

        isComplex: NO

        assigns: (name) ->
          name is @value

        compileNode: (o) ->
          [@makeCode @value]

        toString: ->
          " #{if @isStatement() then super else @constructor.name}: #{@value}"

      exports.NumberLiteral = class NumberLiteral extends Literal

      exports.InfinityLiteral = class InfinityLiteral extends NumberLiteral
        compileNode: ->
          [@makeCode '2e308']

      exports.NaNLiteral = class NaNLiteral extends NumberLiteral
        constructor: ->
          super 'NaN'

        compileNode: (o) ->
          code = [@makeCode '0/0']
          if o.level >= LEVEL_OP then @wrapInBraces code else code

      exports.StringLiteral = class StringLiteral extends Literal

      exports.RegexLiteral = class RegexLiteral extends Literal

      exports.PassthroughLiteral = class PassthroughLiteral extends Literal

      exports.IdentifierLiteral = class IdentifierLiteral extends Literal
        isAssignable: YES

      exports.PropertyName = class PropertyName extends Literal
        isAssignable: YES

      exports.StatementLiteral = class StatementLiteral extends Literal
        isStatement: YES

        makeReturn: THIS

        jumps: (o) ->
          return this if @value is 'break' and not (o?.loop or o?.block)
          return this if @value is 'continue' and not o?.loop

        compileNode: (o) ->
          [@makeCode "#{@tab}#{@value};"]

      exports.ThisLiteral = class ThisLiteral extends Literal
        constructor: ->
          super 'this'

        compileNode: (o) ->
          code = if o.scope.method?.bound then o.scope.method.context else @value
          [@makeCode code]

      exports.UndefinedLiteral = class UndefinedLiteral extends Literal
        constructor: ->
          super 'undefined'

        compileNode: (o) ->
          [@makeCode if o.level >= LEVEL_ACCESS then '(void 0)' else 'void 0']

      exports.NullLiteral = class NullLiteral extends Literal
        constructor: ->
          super 'null'

      exports.BooleanLiteral = class BooleanLiteral extends Literal

- ¶

  ### Return

- ¶

  A `return` is a pureStatement – wrapping it in a closure wouldn’t make sense.

      exports.Return = class Return extends Base
        constructor: (@expression) ->

        children: ['expression']

        isStatement:     YES
        makeReturn:      THIS
        jumps:           THIS

        compileToFragments: (o, level) ->
          expr = @expression?.makeReturn()
          if expr and expr not instanceof Return then expr.compileToFragments o, level else super o, level

        compileNode: (o) ->
          answer = []

- ¶

  TODO: If we call expression.compile() here twice, we’ll sometimes get back different results!

          answer.push @makeCode @tab + "return#{if @expression then " " else ""}"
          if @expression
            answer = answer.concat @expression.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_PAREN
          answer.push @makeCode ";"
          return answer

- ¶

  `yield return` works exactly like `return`, except that it turns the function into a generator.

      exports.YieldReturn = class YieldReturn extends Return
        compileNode: (o) ->
          unless o.scope.parent?
            @error 'yield can only occur inside functions'
          super

- ¶

  ### Value

- ¶

  A value, variable or literal or parenthesized, indexed or dotted into, or vanilla.

      exports.Value = class Value extends Base
        constructor: (base, props, tag) ->
          return base if not props and base instanceof Value
          @base       = base
          @properties = props or []
          @[tag]      = true if tag
          return this

        children: ['base', 'properties']

- ¶

  Add a property (or properties ) `Access` to the list.

        add: (props) ->
          @properties = @properties.concat props
          this

        hasProperties: ->
          !!@properties.length

        bareLiteral: (type) ->
          not @properties.length and @base instanceof type

- ¶

  Some boolean checks for the benefit of other nodes.

        isArray        : -> @bareLiteral(Arr)
        isRange        : -> @bareLiteral(Range)
        isComplex      : -> @hasProperties() or @base.isComplex()
        isAssignable   : -> @hasProperties() or @base.isAssignable()
        isNumber       : -> @bareLiteral(NumberLiteral)
        isString       : -> @bareLiteral(StringLiteral)
        isRegex        : -> @bareLiteral(RegexLiteral)
        isUndefined    : -> @bareLiteral(UndefinedLiteral)
        isNull         : -> @bareLiteral(NullLiteral)
        isBoolean      : -> @bareLiteral(BooleanLiteral)
        isAtomic       : ->
          for node in @properties.concat @base
            return no if node.soak or node instanceof Call
          yes

        isNotCallable  : -> @isNumber() or @isString() or @isRegex() or
                            @isArray() or @isRange() or @isSplice() or @isObject() or
                            @isUndefined() or @isNull() or @isBoolean()

        isStatement : (o)    -> not @properties.length and @base.isStatement o
        assigns     : (name) -> not @properties.length and @base.assigns name
        jumps       : (o)    -> not @properties.length and @base.jumps o

        isObject: (onlyGenerated) ->
          return no if @properties.length
          (@base instanceof Obj) and (not onlyGenerated or @base.generated)

        isSplice: ->
          [..., lastProp] = @properties
          lastProp instanceof Slice

        looksStatic: (className) ->
          @base.value is className and @properties.length is 1 and
            @properties[0].name?.value isnt 'prototype'

- ¶

  The value can be unwrapped as its inner node, if there are no attached properties.

        unwrap: ->
          if @properties.length then this else @base

- ¶

  A reference has base part (`this` value) and name part. We cache them separately for compiling complex expressions. `a()[b()] ?= c` -> `(_base = a())[_name = b()] ? _base[_name] = c`

        cacheReference: (o) ->
          [..., name] = @properties
          if @properties.length < 2 and not @base.isComplex() and not name?.isComplex()
            return [this, this]  # `a` `a.b`
          base = new Value @base, @properties[...-1]
          if base.isComplex()  # `a().b`
            bref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'base'
            base = new Value new Parens new Assign bref, base
          return [base, bref] unless name  # `a()`
          if name.isComplex()  # `a[b()]`
            nref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'name'
            name = new Index new Assign nref, name.index
            nref = new Index nref
          [base.add(name), new Value(bref or base.base, [nref or name])]

- ¶

  We compile a value to JavaScript by compiling and joining each property. Things get much more interesting if the chain of properties has soak operators `?.` interspersed. Then we have to take care not to accidentally evaluate anything twice when building the soak chain.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @base.front = @front
          props = @properties
          fragments = @base.compileToFragments o, (if props.length then LEVEL_ACCESS else null)
          if props.length and SIMPLENUM.test fragmentsToText fragments
            fragments.push @makeCode '.'
          for prop in props
            fragments.push (prop.compileToFragments o)...
          fragments

- ¶

  Unfold a soak into an `If`: `a?.b` -> `a.b if a?`

        unfoldSoak: (o) ->
          @unfoldedSoak ?= do =>
            if ifn = @base.unfoldSoak o
              ifn.body.properties.push @properties...
              return ifn
            for prop, i in @properties when prop.soak
              prop.soak = off
              fst = new Value @base, @properties[...i]
              snd = new Value @base, @properties[i..]
              if fst.isComplex()
                ref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'ref'
                fst = new Parens new Assign ref, fst
                snd.base = ref
              return new If new Existence(fst), snd, soak: on
            no

- ¶

  ### Comment

- ¶

  CoffeeScript passes through block comments as JavaScript block comments at the same position.

      exports.Comment = class Comment extends Base
        constructor: (@comment) ->

        isStatement:     YES
        makeReturn:      THIS

        compileNode: (o, level) ->
          comment = @comment.replace /^(\s*)#(?=\s)/gm, "$1 *"
          code = "/*#{multident comment, @tab}#{if '\n' in comment then "\n#{@tab}" else ''} */"
          code = o.indent + code if (level or o.level) is LEVEL_TOP
          [@makeCode("\n"), @makeCode(code)]

- ¶

  ### Call

- ¶

  Node for a function invocation.

      exports.Call = class Call extends Base
        constructor: (@variable, @args = [], @soak) ->
          @isNew    = false
          if @variable instanceof Value and @variable.isNotCallable()
            @variable.error "literal is not a function"

        children: ['variable', 'args']

- ¶

  When setting the location, we sometimes need to update the start location to account for a newly-discovered `new` operator to the left of us. This expands the range on the left, but not the right.

        updateLocationDataIfMissing: (locationData) ->
          if @locationData and @needsUpdatedStartLocation
            @locationData.first_line = locationData.first_line
            @locationData.first_column = locationData.first_column
            base = @variable?.base or @variable
            if base.needsUpdatedStartLocation
              @variable.locationData.first_line = locationData.first_line
              @variable.locationData.first_column = locationData.first_column
              base.updateLocationDataIfMissing locationData
            delete @needsUpdatedStartLocation
          super

- ¶

  Tag this invocation as creating a new instance.

        newInstance: ->
          base = @variable?.base or @variable
          if base instanceof Call and not base.isNew
            base.newInstance()
          else
            @isNew = true
          @needsUpdatedStartLocation = true
          this

- ¶

  Soaked chained invocations unfold into if/else ternary structures.

        unfoldSoak: (o) ->
          if @soak
            if this instanceof SuperCall
              left = new Literal @superReference o
              rite = new Value left
            else
              return ifn if ifn = unfoldSoak o, this, 'variable'
              [left, rite] = new Value(@variable).cacheReference o
            rite = new Call rite, @args
            rite.isNew = @isNew
            left = new Literal "typeof #{ left.compile o } === \"function\""
            return new If left, new Value(rite), soak: yes
          call = this
          list = []
          loop
            if call.variable instanceof Call
              list.push call
              call = call.variable
              continue
            break unless call.variable instanceof Value
            list.push call
            break unless (call = call.variable.base) instanceof Call
          for call in list.reverse()
            if ifn
              if call.variable instanceof Call
                call.variable = ifn
              else
                call.variable.base = ifn
            ifn = unfoldSoak o, call, 'variable'
          ifn

- ¶

  Compile a vanilla function call.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @variable?.front = @front
          compiledArray = Splat.compileSplattedArray o, @args, true
          if compiledArray.length
            return @compileSplat o, compiledArray
          compiledArgs = []
          for arg, argIndex in @args
            if argIndex then compiledArgs.push @makeCode ", "
            compiledArgs.push (arg.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST)...

          fragments = []
          if this instanceof SuperCall
            preface = @superReference(o) + ".call(#{@superThis(o)}"
            if compiledArgs.length then preface += ", "
            fragments.push @makeCode preface
          else
            if @isNew then fragments.push @makeCode 'new '
            fragments.push @variable.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_ACCESS)...
            fragments.push @makeCode "("
          fragments.push compiledArgs...
          fragments.push @makeCode ")"
          fragments

- ¶

  If you call a function with a splat, it’s converted into a JavaScript `.apply()` call to allow an array of arguments to be passed. If it’s a constructor, then things get real tricky. We have to inject an inner constructor in order to be able to pass the varargs.

  splatArgs is an array of CodeFragments to put into the ‘apply’.

        compileSplat: (o, splatArgs) ->
          if this instanceof SuperCall
            return [].concat @makeCode("#{ @superReference o }.apply(#{@superThis(o)}, "),
              splatArgs, @makeCode(")")

          if @isNew
            idt = @tab + TAB
            return [].concat @makeCode("""
              (function(func, args, ctor) {
              #{idt}ctor.prototype = func.prototype;
              #{idt}var child = new ctor, result = func.apply(child, args);
              #{idt}return Object(result) === result ? result : child;
              #{@tab}})("""),
              (@variable.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST),
              @makeCode(", "), splatArgs, @makeCode(", function(){})")

          answer = []
          base = new Value @variable
          if (name = base.properties.pop()) and base.isComplex()
            ref = o.scope.freeVariable 'ref'
            answer = answer.concat @makeCode("(#{ref} = "),
              (base.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST),
              @makeCode(")"),
              name.compileToFragments(o)
          else
            fun = base.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_ACCESS
            fun = @wrapInBraces fun if SIMPLENUM.test fragmentsToText fun
            if name
              ref = fragmentsToText fun
              fun.push (name.compileToFragments o)...
            else
              ref = 'null'
            answer = answer.concat fun
          answer = answer.concat @makeCode(".apply(#{ref}, "), splatArgs, @makeCode(")")

- ¶

  ### Super

- ¶

  Takes care of converting `super()` calls into calls against the prototype’s function of the same name.

      exports.SuperCall = class SuperCall extends Call
        constructor: (args) ->
          super null, args ? [new Splat new IdentifierLiteral 'arguments']

- ¶

  Allow to recognize a bare `super` call without parentheses and arguments.

          @isBare = args?

- ¶

  Grab the reference to the superclass’s implementation of the current method.

        superReference: (o) ->
          method = o.scope.namedMethod()
          if method?.klass
            {klass, name, variable} = method
            if klass.isComplex()
              bref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.parent.freeVariable 'base'
              base = new Value new Parens new Assign bref, klass
              variable.base = base
              variable.properties.splice 0, klass.properties.length
            if name.isComplex() or (name instanceof Index and name.index.isAssignable())
              nref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.parent.freeVariable 'name'
              name = new Index new Assign nref, name.index
              variable.properties.pop()
              variable.properties.push name
            accesses = [new Access new PropertyName '__super__']
            accesses.push new Access new PropertyName 'constructor' if method.static
            accesses.push if nref? then new Index nref else name
            (new Value bref ? klass, accesses).compile o
          else if method?.ctor
            "#{method.name}.__super__.constructor"
          else
            @error 'cannot call super outside of an instance method.'

- ¶

  The appropriate `this` value for a `super` call.

        superThis : (o) ->
          method = o.scope.method
          (method and not method.klass and method.context) or "this"

- ¶

  ### RegexWithInterpolations

- ¶

  Regexes with interpolations are in fact just a variation of a `Call` (a `RegExp()` call to be precise) with a `StringWithInterpolations` inside.

      exports.RegexWithInterpolations = class RegexWithInterpolations extends Call
        constructor: (args = []) ->
          super (new Value new IdentifierLiteral 'RegExp'), args, false

- ¶

  ### TaggedTemplateCall

      exports.TaggedTemplateCall = class TaggedTemplateCall extends Call
        constructor: (variable, arg, soak) ->
          arg = new StringWithInterpolations Block.wrap([ new Value arg ]) if arg instanceof StringLiteral
          super variable, [ arg ], soak

        compileNode: (o) ->

- ¶

  Tell `StringWithInterpolations` whether to compile as ES2015 or not; will be removed in CoffeeScript 2.

          o.inTaggedTemplateCall = yes
          @variable.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_ACCESS).concat @args[0].compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_LIST)

- ¶

  ### Extends

- ¶

  Node to extend an object’s prototype with an ancestor object. After `goog.inherits` from the Closure Library.

      exports.Extends = class Extends extends Base
        constructor: (@child, @parent) ->

        children: ['child', 'parent']

- ¶

  Hooks one constructor into another’s prototype chain.

        compileToFragments: (o) ->
          new Call(new Value(new Literal utility 'extend', o), [@child, @parent]).compileToFragments o

- ¶

  ### Access

- ¶

  A `.` access into a property of a value, or the `::` shorthand for an access into the object’s prototype.

      exports.Access = class Access extends Base
        constructor: (@name, tag) ->
          @soak  = tag is 'soak'

        children: ['name']

        compileToFragments: (o) ->
          name = @name.compileToFragments o
          node = @name.unwrap()
          if node instanceof PropertyName
            if node.value in JS_FORBIDDEN
              [@makeCode('["'), name..., @makeCode('"]')]
            else
              [@makeCode('.'), name...]
          else
            [@makeCode('['), name..., @makeCode(']')]

        isComplex: NO

- ¶

  ### Index

- ¶

  A `[ ... ]` indexed access into an array or object.

      exports.Index = class Index extends Base
        constructor: (@index) ->

        children: ['index']

        compileToFragments: (o) ->
          [].concat @makeCode("["), @index.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN), @makeCode("]")

        isComplex: ->
          @index.isComplex()

- ¶

  ### Range

- ¶

  A range literal. Ranges can be used to extract portions (slices) of arrays, to specify a range for comprehensions, or as a value, to be expanded into the corresponding array of integers at runtime.

      exports.Range = class Range extends Base

        children: ['from', 'to']

        constructor: (@from, @to, tag) ->
          @exclusive = tag is 'exclusive'
          @equals = if @exclusive then '' else '='

- ¶

  Compiles the range’s source variables – where it starts and where it ends. But only if they need to be cached to avoid double evaluation.

        compileVariables: (o) ->
          o = merge o, top: true
          isComplex = del o, 'isComplex'
          [@fromC, @fromVar]  =  @cacheToCodeFragments @from.cache o, LEVEL_LIST, isComplex
          [@toC, @toVar]      =  @cacheToCodeFragments @to.cache o, LEVEL_LIST, isComplex
          [@step, @stepVar]   =  @cacheToCodeFragments step.cache o, LEVEL_LIST, isComplex if step = del o, 'step'
          @fromNum = if @from.isNumber() then Number @fromVar else null
          @toNum   = if @to.isNumber()   then Number @toVar   else null
          @stepNum = if step?.isNumber() then Number @stepVar else null

- ¶

  When compiled normally, the range returns the contents of the for loop needed to iterate over the values in the range. Used by comprehensions.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @compileVariables o unless @fromVar
          return @compileArray(o) unless o.index

- ¶

  Set up endpoints.

          known    = @fromNum? and @toNum?
          idx      = del o, 'index'
          idxName  = del o, 'name'
          namedIndex = idxName and idxName isnt idx
          varPart  = "#{idx} = #{@fromC}"
          varPart += ", #{@toC}" if @toC isnt @toVar
          varPart += ", #{@step}" if @step isnt @stepVar
          [lt, gt] = ["#{idx} <#{@equals}", "#{idx} >#{@equals}"]

- ¶

  Generate the condition.

          condPart = if @stepNum?
            if @stepNum > 0 then "#{lt} #{@toVar}" else "#{gt} #{@toVar}"
          else if known
            [from, to] = [@fromNum, @toNum]
            if from <= to then "#{lt} #{to}" else "#{gt} #{to}"
          else
            cond = if @stepVar then "#{@stepVar} > 0" else "#{@fromVar} <= #{@toVar}"
            "#{cond} ? #{lt} #{@toVar} : #{gt} #{@toVar}"

- ¶

  Generate the step.

          stepPart = if @stepVar
            "#{idx} += #{@stepVar}"
          else if known
            if namedIndex
              if from <= to then "++#{idx}" else "--#{idx}"
            else
              if from <= to then "#{idx}++" else "#{idx}--"
          else
            if namedIndex
              "#{cond} ? ++#{idx} : --#{idx}"
            else
              "#{cond} ? #{idx}++ : #{idx}--"

          varPart  = "#{idxName} = #{varPart}" if namedIndex
          stepPart = "#{idxName} = #{stepPart}" if namedIndex

- ¶

  The final loop body.

          [@makeCode "#{varPart}; #{condPart}; #{stepPart}"]

- ¶

  When used as a value, expand the range into the equivalent array.

        compileArray: (o) ->
          known = @fromNum? and @toNum?
          if known and Math.abs(@fromNum - @toNum) <= 20
            range = [@fromNum..@toNum]
            range.pop() if @exclusive
            return [@makeCode "[#{ range.join(', ') }]"]
          idt    = @tab + TAB
          i      = o.scope.freeVariable 'i', single: true
          result = o.scope.freeVariable 'results'
          pre    = "\n#{idt}#{result} = [];"
          if known
            o.index = i
            body    = fragmentsToText @compileNode o
          else
            vars    = "#{i} = #{@fromC}" + if @toC isnt @toVar then ", #{@toC}" else ''
            cond    = "#{@fromVar} <= #{@toVar}"
            body    = "var #{vars}; #{cond} ? #{i} <#{@equals} #{@toVar} : #{i} >#{@equals} #{@toVar}; #{cond} ? #{i}++ : #{i}--"
          post   = "{ #{result}.push(#{i}); }\n#{idt}return #{result};\n#{o.indent}"
          hasArgs = (node) -> node?.contains isLiteralArguments
          args   = ', arguments' if hasArgs(@from) or hasArgs(@to)
          [@makeCode "(function() {#{pre}\n#{idt}for (#{body})#{post}}).apply(this#{args ? ''})"]

- ¶

  ### Slice

- ¶

  An array slice literal. Unlike JavaScript’s `Array#slice`, the second parameter specifies the index of the end of the slice, just as the first parameter is the index of the beginning.

      exports.Slice = class Slice extends Base

        children: ['range']

        constructor: (@range) ->
          super()

- ¶

  We have to be careful when trying to slice through the end of the array, `9e9` is used because not all implementations respect `undefined` or `1/0`. `9e9` should be safe because `9e9` > `2**32`, the max array length.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          {to, from} = @range
          fromCompiled = from and from.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN) or [@makeCode '0']

- ¶

  TODO: jwalton - move this into the ‘if’?

          if to
            compiled     = to.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_PAREN
            compiledText = fragmentsToText compiled
            if not (not @range.exclusive and +compiledText is -1)
              toStr = ', ' + if @range.exclusive
                compiledText
              else if to.isNumber()
                "#{+compiledText + 1}"
              else
                compiled = to.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_ACCESS
                "+#{fragmentsToText compiled} + 1 || 9e9"
          [@makeCode ".slice(#{ fragmentsToText fromCompiled }#{ toStr or '' })"]

- ¶

  ### Obj

- ¶

  An object literal, nothing fancy.

      exports.Obj = class Obj extends Base
        constructor: (props, @generated = false) ->
          @objects = @properties = props or []

        children: ['properties']

        compileNode: (o) ->
          props = @properties
          if @generated
            for node in props when node instanceof Value
              node.error 'cannot have an implicit value in an implicit object'
          break for prop, dynamicIndex in props when (prop.variable or prop).base instanceof Parens
          hasDynamic  = dynamicIndex < props.length
          idt         = o.indent += TAB
          lastNoncom  = @lastNonComment @properties
          answer = []
          if hasDynamic
            oref = o.scope.freeVariable 'obj'
            answer.push @makeCode "(\n#{idt}#{oref} = "
          answer.push @makeCode "{#{if props.length is 0 or dynamicIndex is 0 then '}' else '\n'}"
          for prop, i in props
            if i is dynamicIndex
              answer.push @makeCode "\n#{idt}}" unless i is 0
              answer.push @makeCode ',\n'
            join = if i is props.length - 1 or i is dynamicIndex - 1
              ''
            else if prop is lastNoncom or prop instanceof Comment
              '\n'
            else
              ',\n'
            indent = if prop instanceof Comment then '' else idt
            indent += TAB if hasDynamic and i < dynamicIndex
            if prop instanceof Assign
              if prop.context isnt 'object'
                prop.operatorToken.error "unexpected #{prop.operatorToken.value}"
              if prop.variable instanceof Value and prop.variable.hasProperties()
                prop.variable.error 'invalid object key'
            if prop instanceof Value and prop.this
              prop = new Assign prop.properties[0].name, prop, 'object'
            if prop not instanceof Comment
              if i < dynamicIndex
                if prop not instanceof Assign
                  prop = new Assign prop, prop, 'object'
              else
                if prop instanceof Assign
                  key = prop.variable
                  value = prop.value
                else
                  [key, value] = prop.base.cache o
                  key = new PropertyName key.value if key instanceof IdentifierLiteral
                prop = new Assign (new Value (new IdentifierLiteral oref), [new Access key]), value
            if indent then answer.push @makeCode indent
            answer.push prop.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_TOP)...
            if join then answer.push @makeCode join
          if hasDynamic
            answer.push @makeCode ",\n#{idt}#{oref}\n#{@tab})"
          else
            answer.push @makeCode "\n#{@tab}}" unless props.length is 0
          if @front and not hasDynamic then @wrapInBraces answer else answer

        assigns: (name) ->
          for prop in @properties when prop.assigns name then return yes
          no

- ¶

  ### Arr

- ¶

  An array literal.

      exports.Arr = class Arr extends Base
        constructor: (objs) ->
          @objects = objs or []

        children: ['objects']

        compileNode: (o) ->
          return [@makeCode '[]'] unless @objects.length
          o.indent += TAB
          answer = Splat.compileSplattedArray o, @objects
          return answer if answer.length

          answer = []
          compiledObjs = (obj.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST for obj in @objects)
          for fragments, index in compiledObjs
            if index
              answer.push @makeCode ", "
            answer.push fragments...
          if fragmentsToText(answer).indexOf('\n') >= 0
            answer.unshift @makeCode "[\n#{o.indent}"
            answer.push @makeCode "\n#{@tab}]"
          else
            answer.unshift @makeCode "["
            answer.push @makeCode "]"
          answer

        assigns: (name) ->
          for obj in @objects when obj.assigns name then return yes
          no

- ¶

  ### Class

- ¶

  The CoffeeScript class definition. Initialize a Class with its name, an optional superclass, and a list of prototype property assignments.

      exports.Class = class Class extends Base
        constructor: (@variable, @parent, @body = new Block) ->
          @boundFuncs = []
          @body.classBody = yes

        children: ['variable', 'parent', 'body']

        defaultClassVariableName: '_Class'

- ¶

  Figure out the appropriate name for the constructor function of this class.

        determineName: ->
          return @defaultClassVariableName unless @variable
          [..., tail] = @variable.properties
          node = if tail
            tail instanceof Access and tail.name
          else
            @variable.base
          unless node instanceof IdentifierLiteral or node instanceof PropertyName
            return @defaultClassVariableName
          name = node.value
          unless tail
            message = isUnassignable name
            @variable.error message if message
          if name in JS_FORBIDDEN then "_#{name}" else name

- ¶

  For all `this`-references and bound functions in the class definition, `this` is the Class being constructed.

        setContext: (name) ->
          @body.traverseChildren false, (node) ->
            return false if node.classBody
            if node instanceof ThisLiteral
              node.value    = name
            else if node instanceof Code
              node.context  = name if node.bound

- ¶

  Ensure that all functions bound to the instance are proxied in the constructor.

        addBoundFunctions: (o) ->
          for bvar in @boundFuncs
            lhs = (new Value (new ThisLiteral), [new Access bvar]).compile o
            @ctor.body.unshift new Literal "#{lhs} = #{utility 'bind', o}(#{lhs}, this)"
          return

- ¶

  Merge the properties from a top-level object as prototypal properties on the class.

        addProperties: (node, name, o) ->
          props = node.base.properties[..]
          exprs = while assign = props.shift()
            if assign instanceof Assign
              base = assign.variable.base
              delete assign.context
              func = assign.value
              if base.value is 'constructor'
                if @ctor
                  assign.error 'cannot define more than one constructor in a class'
                if func.bound
                  assign.error 'cannot define a constructor as a bound function'
                if func instanceof Code
                  assign = @ctor = func
                else
                  @externalCtor = o.classScope.freeVariable 'ctor'
                  assign = new Assign new IdentifierLiteral(@externalCtor), func
              else
                if assign.variable.this
                  func.static = yes
                else
                  acc = if base.isComplex() then new Index base else new Access base
                  assign.variable = new Value(new IdentifierLiteral(name), [(new Access new PropertyName 'prototype'), acc])
                  if func instanceof Code and func.bound
                    @boundFuncs.push base
                    func.bound = no
            assign
          compact exprs

- ¶

  Walk the body of the class, looking for prototype properties to be converted and tagging static assignments.

        walkBody: (name, o) ->
          @traverseChildren false, (child) =>
            cont = true
            return false if child instanceof Class
            if child instanceof Block
              for node, i in exps = child.expressions
                if node instanceof Assign and node.variable.looksStatic name
                  node.value.static = yes
                else if node instanceof Value and node.isObject(true)
                  cont = false
                  exps[i] = @addProperties node, name, o
              child.expressions = exps = flatten exps
            cont and child not instanceof Class

- ¶

  `use strict` (and other directives) must be the first expression statement(s) of a function body. This method ensures the prologue is correctly positioned above the `constructor`.

        hoistDirectivePrologue: ->
          index = 0
          {expressions} = @body
          ++index while (node = expressions[index]) and node instanceof Comment or
            node instanceof Value and node.isString()
          @directives = expressions.splice 0, index

- ¶

  Make sure that a constructor is defined for the class, and properly configured.

        ensureConstructor: (name) ->
          if not @ctor
            @ctor = new Code
            if @externalCtor
              @ctor.body.push new Literal "#{@externalCtor}.apply(this, arguments)"
            else if @parent
              @ctor.body.push new Literal "#{name}.__super__.constructor.apply(this, arguments)"
            @ctor.body.makeReturn()
            @body.expressions.unshift @ctor
          @ctor.ctor = @ctor.name = name
          @ctor.klass = null
          @ctor.noReturn = yes

- ¶

  Instead of generating the JavaScript string directly, we build up the equivalent syntax tree and compile that, in pieces. You can see the constructor, property assignments, and inheritance getting built out below.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          if jumpNode = @body.jumps()
            jumpNode.error 'Class bodies cannot contain pure statements'
          if argumentsNode = @body.contains isLiteralArguments
            argumentsNode.error "Class bodies shouldn't reference arguments"

          name  = @determineName()
          lname = new IdentifierLiteral name
          func  = new Code [], Block.wrap [@body]
          args  = []
          o.classScope = func.makeScope o.scope

          @hoistDirectivePrologue()
          @setContext name
          @walkBody name, o
          @ensureConstructor name
          @addBoundFunctions o
          @body.spaced = yes
          @body.expressions.push lname

          if @parent
            superClass = new IdentifierLiteral o.classScope.freeVariable 'superClass', reserve: no
            @body.expressions.unshift new Extends lname, superClass
            func.params.push new Param superClass
            args.push @parent

          @body.expressions.unshift @directives...

          klass = new Parens new Call func, args
          klass = new Assign @variable, klass, null, { @moduleDeclaration } if @variable
          klass.compileToFragments o

- ¶

  ### Import and Export

      exports.ModuleDeclaration = class ModuleDeclaration extends Base
        constructor: (@clause, @source) ->
          @checkSource()

        children: ['clause', 'source']

        isStatement: YES
        jumps:       THIS
        makeReturn:  THIS

        checkSource: ->
          if @source? and @source instanceof StringWithInterpolations
            @source.error 'the name of the module to be imported from must be an uninterpolated string'

        checkScope: (o, moduleDeclarationType) ->
          if o.indent.length isnt 0
            @error "#{moduleDeclarationType} statements must be at top-level scope"

      exports.ImportDeclaration = class ImportDeclaration extends ModuleDeclaration
        compileNode: (o) ->
          @checkScope o, 'import'
          o.importedSymbols = []

          code = []
          code.push @makeCode "#{@tab}import "
          code.push @clause.compileNode(o)... if @clause?

          if @source?.value?
            code.push @makeCode ' from ' unless @clause is null
            code.push @makeCode @source.value

          code.push @makeCode ';'
          code

      exports.ImportClause = class ImportClause extends Base
        constructor: (@defaultBinding, @namedImports) ->

        children: ['defaultBinding', 'namedImports']

        compileNode: (o) ->
          code = []

          if @defaultBinding?
            code.push @defaultBinding.compileNode(o)...
            code.push @makeCode ', ' if @namedImports?

          if @namedImports?
            code.push @namedImports.compileNode(o)...

          code

      exports.ExportDeclaration = class ExportDeclaration extends ModuleDeclaration
        compileNode: (o) ->
          @checkScope o, 'export'

          code = []
          code.push @makeCode "#{@tab}export "
          code.push @makeCode 'default ' if @ instanceof ExportDefaultDeclaration

          if @ not instanceof ExportDefaultDeclaration and
             (@clause instanceof Assign or @clause instanceof Class)

- ¶

  Prevent exporting an anonymous class; all exported members must be named

            if @clause instanceof Class and not @clause.variable
              @clause.error 'anonymous classes cannot be exported'

- ¶

  When the ES2015 `class` keyword is supported, don’t add a `var` here

            code.push @makeCode 'var '
            @clause.moduleDeclaration = 'export'

          if @clause.body? and @clause.body instanceof Block
            code = code.concat @clause.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP
          else
            code = code.concat @clause.compileNode o

          code.push @makeCode " from #{@source.value}" if @source?.value?
          code.push @makeCode ';'
          code

      exports.ExportNamedDeclaration = class ExportNamedDeclaration extends ExportDeclaration

      exports.ExportDefaultDeclaration = class ExportDefaultDeclaration extends ExportDeclaration

      exports.ExportAllDeclaration = class ExportAllDeclaration extends ExportDeclaration

      exports.ModuleSpecifierList = class ModuleSpecifierList extends Base
        constructor: (@specifiers) ->

        children: ['specifiers']

        compileNode: (o) ->
          code = []
          o.indent += TAB
          compiledList = (specifier.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST for specifier in @specifiers)

          if @specifiers.length isnt 0
            code.push @makeCode "{\n#{o.indent}"
            for fragments, index in compiledList
              code.push @makeCode(",\n#{o.indent}") if index
              code.push fragments...
            code.push @makeCode "\n}"
          else
            code.push @makeCode '{}'
          code

      exports.ImportSpecifierList = class ImportSpecifierList extends ModuleSpecifierList

      exports.ExportSpecifierList = class ExportSpecifierList extends ModuleSpecifierList

      exports.ModuleSpecifier = class ModuleSpecifier extends Base
        constructor: (@original, @alias, @moduleDeclarationType) ->

- ¶

  The name of the variable entering the local scope

          @identifier = if @alias? then @alias.value else @original.value

        children: ['original', 'alias']

        compileNode: (o) ->
          o.scope.find @identifier, @moduleDeclarationType
          code = []
          code.push @makeCode @original.value
          code.push @makeCode " as #{@alias.value}" if @alias?
          code

      exports.ImportSpecifier = class ImportSpecifier extends ModuleSpecifier
        constructor: (imported, local) ->
          super imported, local, 'import'

        compileNode: (o) ->

- ¶

  Per the spec, symbols can’t be imported multiple times (e.g. `import { foo, foo } from 'lib'` is invalid)

          if @identifier in o.importedSymbols or o.scope.check(@identifier)
            @error "'#{@identifier}' has already been declared"
          else
            o.importedSymbols.push @identifier
          super o

      exports.ImportDefaultSpecifier = class ImportDefaultSpecifier extends ImportSpecifier

      exports.ImportNamespaceSpecifier = class ImportNamespaceSpecifier extends ImportSpecifier

      exports.ExportSpecifier = class ExportSpecifier extends ModuleSpecifier
        constructor: (local, exported) ->
          super local, exported, 'export'

- ¶

  ### Assign

- ¶

  The Assign is used to assign a local variable to value, or to set the property of an object – including within object literals.

      exports.Assign = class Assign extends Base
        constructor: (@variable, @value, @context, options = {}) ->
          {@param, @subpattern, @operatorToken, @moduleDeclaration} = options

        children: ['variable', 'value']

        isStatement: (o) ->
          o?.level is LEVEL_TOP and @context? and (@moduleDeclaration or "?" in @context)

        checkAssignability: (o, varBase) ->
          if Object::hasOwnProperty.call(o.scope.positions, varBase.value) and
             o.scope.variables[o.scope.positions[varBase.value]].type is 'import'
            varBase.error "'#{varBase.value}' is read-only"

        assigns: (name) ->
          @[if @context is 'object' then 'value' else 'variable'].assigns name

        unfoldSoak: (o) ->
          unfoldSoak o, this, 'variable'

- ¶

  Compile an assignment, delegating to `compilePatternMatch` or `compileSplice` if appropriate. Keep track of the name of the base object we’ve been assigned to, for correct internal references. If the variable has not been seen yet within the current scope, declare it.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          if isValue = @variable instanceof Value
            return @compilePatternMatch o if @variable.isArray() or @variable.isObject()
            return @compileSplice       o if @variable.isSplice()
            return @compileConditional  o if @context in ['||=', '&&=', '?=']
            return @compileSpecialMath  o if @context in ['**=', '//=', '%%=']
          if @value instanceof Code
            if @value.static
              @value.klass = @variable.base
              @value.name  = @variable.properties[0]
              @value.variable = @variable
            else if @variable.properties?.length >= 2
              [properties..., prototype, name] = @variable.properties
              if prototype.name?.value is 'prototype'
                @value.klass = new Value @variable.base, properties
                @value.name  = name
                @value.variable = @variable
          unless @context
            varBase = @variable.unwrapAll()
            unless varBase.isAssignable()
              @variable.error "'#{@variable.compile o}' can't be assigned"
            unless varBase.hasProperties?()

- ¶

  `moduleDeclaration` can be `'import'` or `'export'`

              if @moduleDeclaration
                @checkAssignability o, varBase
                o.scope.add varBase.value, @moduleDeclaration
              else if @param
                o.scope.add varBase.value, 'var'
              else
                @checkAssignability o, varBase
                o.scope.find varBase.value

          val = @value.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
          @variable.front = true if isValue and @variable.base instanceof Obj
          compiledName = @variable.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST

          if @context is 'object'
            if fragmentsToText(compiledName) in JS_FORBIDDEN
              compiledName.unshift @makeCode '"'
              compiledName.push @makeCode '"'
            return compiledName.concat @makeCode(": "), val

          answer = compiledName.concat @makeCode(" #{ @context or '=' } "), val
          if o.level <= LEVEL_LIST then answer else @wrapInBraces answer

- ¶

  Brief implementation of recursive pattern matching, when assigning array or object literals to a value. Peeks at their properties to assign inner names.

        compilePatternMatch: (o) ->
          top       = o.level is LEVEL_TOP
          {value}   = this
          {objects} = @variable.base
          unless olen = objects.length
            code = value.compileToFragments o
            return if o.level >= LEVEL_OP then @wrapInBraces code else code
          [obj] = objects
          if olen is 1 and obj instanceof Expansion
            obj.error 'Destructuring assignment has no target'
          isObject = @variable.isObject()
          if top and olen is 1 and obj not instanceof Splat

- ¶

  Pick the property straight off the value when there’s just one to pick (no need to cache the value into a variable).

            defaultValue = null
            if obj instanceof Assign and obj.context is 'object'

- ¶

  A regular object pattern-match.

              {variable: {base: idx}, value: obj} = obj
              if obj instanceof Assign
                defaultValue = obj.value
                obj = obj.variable
            else
              if obj instanceof Assign
                defaultValue = obj.value
                obj = obj.variable
              idx = if isObject

- ¶

  A shorthand `{a, b, @c} = val` pattern-match.

                if obj.this
                  obj.properties[0].name
                else
                  new PropertyName obj.unwrap().value
              else

- ¶

  A regular array pattern-match.

                new NumberLiteral 0
            acc   = idx.unwrap() instanceof PropertyName
            value = new Value value
            value.properties.push new (if acc then Access else Index) idx
            message = isUnassignable obj.unwrap().value
            obj.error message if message
            value = new Op '?', value, defaultValue if defaultValue
            return new Assign(obj, value, null, param: @param).compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP
          vvar     = value.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
          vvarText = fragmentsToText vvar
          assigns  = []
          expandedIdx = false

- ¶

  Make vvar into a simple variable if it isn’t already.

          if value.unwrap() not instanceof IdentifierLiteral or @variable.assigns(vvarText)
            assigns.push [@makeCode("#{ ref = o.scope.freeVariable 'ref' } = "), vvar...]
            vvar = [@makeCode ref]
            vvarText = ref
          for obj, i in objects
            idx = i
            if not expandedIdx and obj instanceof Splat
              name = obj.name.unwrap().value
              obj = obj.unwrap()
              val = "#{olen} <= #{vvarText}.length ? #{ utility 'slice', o }.call(#{vvarText}, #{i}"
              if rest = olen - i - 1
                ivar = o.scope.freeVariable 'i', single: true
                val += ", #{ivar} = #{vvarText}.length - #{rest}) : (#{ivar} = #{i}, [])"
              else
                val += ") : []"
              val   = new Literal val
              expandedIdx = "#{ivar}++"
            else if not expandedIdx and obj instanceof Expansion
              if rest = olen - i - 1
                if rest is 1
                  expandedIdx = "#{vvarText}.length - 1"
                else
                  ivar = o.scope.freeVariable 'i', single: true
                  val = new Literal "#{ivar} = #{vvarText}.length - #{rest}"
                  expandedIdx = "#{ivar}++"
                  assigns.push val.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
              continue
            else
              if obj instanceof Splat or obj instanceof Expansion
                obj.error "multiple splats/expansions are disallowed in an assignment"
              defaultValue = null
              if obj instanceof Assign and obj.context is 'object'

- ¶

  A regular object pattern-match.

                {variable: {base: idx}, value: obj} = obj
                if obj instanceof Assign
                  defaultValue = obj.value
                  obj = obj.variable
              else
                if obj instanceof Assign
                  defaultValue = obj.value
                  obj = obj.variable
                idx = if isObject

- ¶

  A shorthand `{a, b, @c} = val` pattern-match.

                  if obj.this
                    obj.properties[0].name
                  else
                    new PropertyName obj.unwrap().value
                else

- ¶

  A regular array pattern-match.

                  new Literal expandedIdx or idx
              name = obj.unwrap().value
              acc = idx.unwrap() instanceof PropertyName
              val = new Value new Literal(vvarText), [new (if acc then Access else Index) idx]
              val = new Op '?', val, defaultValue if defaultValue
            if name?
              message = isUnassignable name
              obj.error message if message
            assigns.push new Assign(obj, val, null, param: @param, subpattern: yes).compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
          assigns.push vvar unless top or @subpattern
          fragments = @joinFragmentArrays assigns, ', '
          if o.level < LEVEL_LIST then fragments else @wrapInBraces fragments

- ¶

  When compiling a conditional assignment, take care to ensure that the operands are only evaluated once, even though we have to reference them more than once.

        compileConditional: (o) ->
          [left, right] = @variable.cacheReference o

- ¶

  Disallow conditional assignment of undefined variables.

          if not left.properties.length and left.base instanceof Literal and
                 left.base not instanceof ThisLiteral and not o.scope.check left.base.value
            @variable.error "the variable \"#{left.base.value}\" can't be assigned with #{@context} because it has not been declared before"
          if "?" in @context
            o.isExistentialEquals = true
            new If(new Existence(left), right, type: 'if').addElse(new Assign(right, @value, '=')).compileToFragments o
          else
            fragments = new Op(@context[...-1], left, new Assign(right, @value, '=')).compileToFragments o
            if o.level <= LEVEL_LIST then fragments else @wrapInBraces fragments

- ¶

  Convert special math assignment operators like `a **= b` to the equivalent extended form `a = a ** b` and then compiles that.

        compileSpecialMath: (o) ->
          [left, right] = @variable.cacheReference o
          new Assign(left, new Op(@context[...-1], right, @value)).compileToFragments o

- ¶

  Compile the assignment from an array splice literal, using JavaScript’s `Array#splice` method.

        compileSplice: (o) ->
          {range: {from, to, exclusive}} = @variable.properties.pop()
          name = @variable.compile o
          if from
            [fromDecl, fromRef] = @cacheToCodeFragments from.cache o, LEVEL_OP
          else
            fromDecl = fromRef = '0'
          if to
            if from?.isNumber() and to.isNumber()
              to = to.compile(o) - fromRef
              to += 1 unless exclusive
            else
              to = to.compile(o, LEVEL_ACCESS) + ' - ' + fromRef
              to += ' + 1' unless exclusive
          else
            to = "9e9"
          [valDef, valRef] = @value.cache o, LEVEL_LIST
          answer = [].concat @makeCode("[].splice.apply(#{name}, [#{fromDecl}, #{to}].concat("), valDef, @makeCode(")), "), valRef
          if o.level > LEVEL_TOP then @wrapInBraces answer else answer

- ¶

  ### Code

- ¶

  A function definition. This is the only node that creates a new Scope. When for the purposes of walking the contents of a function body, the Code has no children – they’re within the inner scope.

      exports.Code = class Code extends Base
        constructor: (params, body, tag) ->
          @params      = params or []
          @body        = body or new Block
          @bound       = tag is 'boundfunc'
          @isGenerator = !!@body.contains (node) ->
            (node instanceof Op and node.isYield()) or node instanceof YieldReturn

        children: ['params', 'body']

        isStatement: -> !!@ctor

        jumps: NO

        makeScope: (parentScope) -> new Scope parentScope, @body, this

- ¶

  Compilation creates a new scope unless explicitly asked to share with the outer scope. Handles splat parameters in the parameter list by peeking at the JavaScript `arguments` object. If the function is bound with the `=>` arrow, generates a wrapper that saves the current value of `this` through a closure.

        compileNode: (o) ->

          if @bound and o.scope.method?.bound
            @context = o.scope.method.context

- ¶

  Handle bound functions early.

          if @bound and not @context
            @context = '_this'
            wrapper = new Code [new Param new IdentifierLiteral @context], new Block [this]
            boundfunc = new Call(wrapper, [new ThisLiteral])
            boundfunc.updateLocationDataIfMissing @locationData
            return boundfunc.compileNode(o)

          o.scope         = del(o, 'classScope') or @makeScope o.scope
          o.scope.shared  = del(o, 'sharedScope')
          o.indent        += TAB
          delete o.bare
          delete o.isExistentialEquals
          params = []
          exprs  = []
          for param in @params when param not instanceof Expansion
            o.scope.parameter param.asReference o
          for param in @params when param.splat or param instanceof Expansion
            for p in @params when p not instanceof Expansion and p.name.value
              o.scope.add p.name.value, 'var', yes
            splats = new Assign new Value(new Arr(p.asReference o for p in @params)),
                                new Value new IdentifierLiteral 'arguments'
            break
          for param in @params
            if param.isComplex()
              val = ref = param.asReference o
              val = new Op '?', ref, param.value if param.value
              exprs.push new Assign new Value(param.name), val, '=', param: yes
            else
              ref = param
              if param.value
                lit = new Literal ref.name.value + ' == null'
                val = new Assign new Value(param.name), param.value, '='
                exprs.push new If lit, val
            params.push ref unless splats
          wasEmpty = @body.isEmpty()
          exprs.unshift splats if splats
          @body.expressions.unshift exprs... if exprs.length
          for p, i in params
            params[i] = p.compileToFragments o
            o.scope.parameter fragmentsToText params[i]
          uniqs = []
          @eachParamName (name, node) ->
            node.error "multiple parameters named #{name}" if name in uniqs
            uniqs.push name
          @body.makeReturn() unless wasEmpty or @noReturn
          code = 'function'
          code += '*' if @isGenerator
          code += ' ' + @name if @ctor
          code += '('
          answer = [@makeCode(code)]
          for p, i in params
            if i then answer.push @makeCode ", "
            answer.push p...
          answer.push @makeCode ') {'
          answer = answer.concat(@makeCode("\n"), @body.compileWithDeclarations(o), @makeCode("\n#{@tab}")) unless @body.isEmpty()
          answer.push @makeCode '}'

          return [@makeCode(@tab), answer...] if @ctor
          if @front or (o.level >= LEVEL_ACCESS) then @wrapInBraces answer else answer

        eachParamName: (iterator) ->
          param.eachName iterator for param in @params

- ¶

  Short-circuit `traverseChildren` method to prevent it from crossing scope boundaries unless `crossScope` is `true`.

        traverseChildren: (crossScope, func) ->
          super(crossScope, func) if crossScope

- ¶

  ### Param

- ¶

  A parameter in a function definition. Beyond a typical JavaScript parameter, these parameters can also attach themselves to the context of the function, as well as be a splat, gathering up a group of parameters into an array.

      exports.Param = class Param extends Base
        constructor: (@name, @value, @splat) ->
          message = isUnassignable @name.unwrapAll().value
          @name.error message if message
          if @name instanceof Obj and @name.generated
            token = @name.objects[0].operatorToken
            token.error "unexpected #{token.value}"

        children: ['name', 'value']

        compileToFragments: (o) ->
          @name.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST

        asReference: (o) ->
          return @reference if @reference
          node = @name
          if node.this
            name = node.properties[0].name.value
            name = "_#{name}" if name in JS_FORBIDDEN
            node = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable name
          else if node.isComplex()
            node = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'arg'
          node = new Value node
          node = new Splat node if @splat
          node.updateLocationDataIfMissing @locationData
          @reference = node

        isComplex: ->
          @name.isComplex()

- ¶

  Iterates the name or names of a `Param`. In a sense, a destructured parameter represents multiple JS parameters. This method allows to iterate them all. The `iterator` function will be called as `iterator(name, node)` where `name` is the name of the parameter and `node` is the AST node corresponding to that name.

        eachName: (iterator, name = @name)->
          atParam = (obj) -> iterator "@#{obj.properties[0].name.value}", obj

- ¶
  - simple literals `foo`

          return iterator name.value, name if name instanceof Literal

- ¶
  - at-params `@foo`

          return atParam name if name instanceof Value
          for obj in name.objects ? []

- ¶
  - destructured parameter with default value

            if obj instanceof Assign and not obj.context?
              obj = obj.variable

- ¶
  - assignments within destructured parameters `{foo:bar}`

            if obj instanceof Assign

- ¶

  … possibly with a default value

              if obj.value instanceof Assign
                obj = obj.value
              @eachName iterator, obj.value.unwrap()

- ¶
  - splats within destructured parameters `[xs...]`

            else if obj instanceof Splat
              node = obj.name.unwrap()
              iterator node.value, node
            else if obj instanceof Value

- ¶
  - destructured parameters within destructured parameters `[{a}]`

              if obj.isArray() or obj.isObject()
                @eachName iterator, obj.base

- ¶
  - at-params within destructured parameters `{@foo}`

              else if obj.this
                atParam obj

- ¶
  - simple destructured parameters {foo}

              else iterator obj.base.value, obj.base
            else if obj not instanceof Expansion
              obj.error "illegal parameter #{obj.compile()}"
          return

- ¶

  ### Splat

- ¶

  A splat, either as a parameter to a function, an argument to a call, or as part of a destructuring assignment.

      exports.Splat = class Splat extends Base

        children: ['name']

        isAssignable: YES

        constructor: (name) ->
          @name = if name.compile then name else new Literal name

        assigns: (name) ->
          @name.assigns name

        compileToFragments: (o) ->
          @name.compileToFragments o

        unwrap: -> @name

- ¶

  Utility function that converts an arbitrary number of elements, mixed with splats, to a proper array.

        @compileSplattedArray: (o, list, apply) ->
          index = -1
          continue while (node = list[++index]) and node not instanceof Splat
          return [] if index >= list.length
          if list.length is 1
            node = list[0]
            fragments = node.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
            return fragments if apply
            return [].concat node.makeCode("#{ utility 'slice', o }.call("), fragments, node.makeCode(")")
          args = list[index..]
          for node, i in args
            compiledNode = node.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
            args[i] = if node instanceof Splat
            then [].concat node.makeCode("#{ utility 'slice', o }.call("), compiledNode, node.makeCode(")")
            else [].concat node.makeCode("["), compiledNode, node.makeCode("]")
          if index is 0
            node = list[0]
            concatPart = (node.joinFragmentArrays args[1..], ', ')
            return args[0].concat node.makeCode(".concat("), concatPart, node.makeCode(")")
          base = (node.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST for node in list[...index])
          base = list[0].joinFragmentArrays base, ', '
          concatPart = list[index].joinFragmentArrays args, ', '
          [..., last] = list
          [].concat list[0].makeCode("["), base, list[index].makeCode("].concat("), concatPart, last.makeCode(")")

- ¶

  ### Expansion

- ¶

  Used to skip values inside an array destructuring (pattern matching) or parameter list.

      exports.Expansion = class Expansion extends Base

        isComplex: NO

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @error 'Expansion must be used inside a destructuring assignment or parameter list'

        asReference: (o) ->
          this

        eachName: (iterator) ->

- ¶

  ### While

- ¶

  A while loop, the only sort of low-level loop exposed by CoffeeScript. From it, all other loops can be manufactured. Useful in cases where you need more flexibility or more speed than a comprehension can provide.

      exports.While = class While extends Base
        constructor: (condition, options) ->
          @condition = if options?.invert then condition.invert() else condition
          @guard     = options?.guard

        children: ['condition', 'guard', 'body']

        isStatement: YES

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          if res
            super
          else
            @returns = not @jumps loop: yes
            this

        addBody: (@body) ->
          this

        jumps: ->
          {expressions} = @body
          return no unless expressions.length
          for node in expressions
            return jumpNode if jumpNode = node.jumps loop: yes
          no

- ¶

  The main difference from a JavaScript while is that the CoffeeScript while can be used as a part of a larger expression – while loops may return an array containing the computed result of each iteration.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          o.indent += TAB
          set      = ''
          {body}   = this
          if body.isEmpty()
            body = @makeCode ''
          else
            if @returns
              body.makeReturn rvar = o.scope.freeVariable 'results'
              set  = "#{@tab}#{rvar} = [];\n"
            if @guard
              if body.expressions.length > 1
                body.expressions.unshift new If (new Parens @guard).invert(), new StatementLiteral "continue"
              else
                body = Block.wrap [new If @guard, body] if @guard
            body = [].concat @makeCode("\n"), (body.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP), @makeCode("\n#{@tab}")
          answer = [].concat @makeCode(set + @tab + "while ("), @condition.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN),
            @makeCode(") {"), body, @makeCode("}")
          if @returns
            answer.push @makeCode "\n#{@tab}return #{rvar};"
          answer

- ¶

  ### Op

- ¶

  Simple Arithmetic and logical operations. Performs some conversion from CoffeeScript operations into their JavaScript equivalents.

      exports.Op = class Op extends Base
        constructor: (op, first, second, flip ) ->
          return new In first, second if op is 'in'
          if op is 'do'
            return @generateDo first
          if op is 'new'
            return first.newInstance() if first instanceof Call and not first.do and not first.isNew
            first = new Parens first   if first instanceof Code and first.bound or first.do
          @operator = CONVERSIONS[op] or op
          @first    = first
          @second   = second
          @flip     = !!flip
          return this

- ¶

  The map of conversions from CoffeeScript to JavaScript symbols.

        CONVERSIONS =
          '==':        '==='
          '!=':        '!=='
          'of':        'in'
          'yieldfrom': 'yield*'

- ¶

  The map of invertible operators.

        INVERSIONS =
          '!==': '==='
          '===': '!=='

        children: ['first', 'second']

        isNumber: ->
          @isUnary() and @operator in ['+', '-'] and
            @first instanceof Value and @first.isNumber()

        isYield: ->
          @operator in ['yield', 'yield*']

        isUnary: ->
          not @second

        isComplex: ->
          not @isNumber()

- ¶

  Am I capable of Python-style comparison chaining?

        isChainable: ->
          @operator in ['<', '>', '>=', '<=', '===', '!==']

        invert: ->
          if @isChainable() and @first.isChainable()
            allInvertable = yes
            curr = this
            while curr and curr.operator
              allInvertable and= (curr.operator of INVERSIONS)
              curr = curr.first
            return new Parens(this).invert() unless allInvertable
            curr = this
            while curr and curr.operator
              curr.invert = !curr.invert
              curr.operator = INVERSIONS[curr.operator]
              curr = curr.first
            this
          else if op = INVERSIONS[@operator]
            @operator = op
            if @first.unwrap() instanceof Op
              @first.invert()
            this
          else if @second
            new Parens(this).invert()
          else if @operator is '!' and (fst = @first.unwrap()) instanceof Op and
                                        fst.operator in ['!', 'in', 'instanceof']
            fst
          else
            new Op '!', this

        unfoldSoak: (o) ->
          @operator in ['++', '--', 'delete'] and unfoldSoak o, this, 'first'

        generateDo: (exp) ->
          passedParams = []
          func = if exp instanceof Assign and (ref = exp.value.unwrap()) instanceof Code
            ref
          else
            exp
          for param in func.params or []
            if param.value
              passedParams.push param.value
              delete param.value
            else
              passedParams.push param
          call = new Call exp, passedParams
          call.do = yes
          call

        compileNode: (o) ->
          isChain = @isChainable() and @first.isChainable()

- ¶

  In chains, there’s no need to wrap bare obj literals in parens, as the chained expression is wrapped.

          @first.front = @front unless isChain
          if @operator is 'delete' and o.scope.check(@first.unwrapAll().value)
            @error 'delete operand may not be argument or var'
          if @operator in ['--', '++']
            message = isUnassignable @first.unwrapAll().value
            @first.error message if message
          return @compileYield     o if @isYield()
          return @compileUnary     o if @isUnary()
          return @compileChain     o if isChain
          switch @operator
            when '?'  then @compileExistence o
            when '**' then @compilePower o
            when '//' then @compileFloorDivision o
            when '%%' then @compileModulo o
            else
              lhs = @first.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP
              rhs = @second.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP
              answer = [].concat lhs, @makeCode(" #{@operator} "), rhs
              if o.level <= LEVEL_OP then answer else @wrapInBraces answer

- ¶

  Mimic Python’s chained comparisons when multiple comparison operators are used sequentially. For example:

      bin/coffee -e 'console.log 50 < 65 > 10'
      true

        compileChain: (o) ->
          [@first.second, shared] = @first.second.cache o
          fst = @first.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP
          fragments = fst.concat @makeCode(" #{if @invert then '&&' else '||'} "),
            (shared.compileToFragments o), @makeCode(" #{@operator} "), (@second.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP)
          @wrapInBraces fragments

- ¶

  Keep reference to the left expression, unless this an existential assignment

        compileExistence: (o) ->
          if @first.isComplex()
            ref = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'ref'
            fst = new Parens new Assign ref, @first
          else
            fst = @first
            ref = fst
          new If(new Existence(fst), ref, type: 'if').addElse(@second).compileToFragments o

- ¶

  Compile a unary Op.

        compileUnary: (o) ->
          parts = []
          op = @operator
          parts.push [@makeCode op]
          if op is '!' and @first instanceof Existence
            @first.negated = not @first.negated
            return @first.compileToFragments o
          if o.level >= LEVEL_ACCESS
            return (new Parens this).compileToFragments o
          plusMinus = op in ['+', '-']
          parts.push [@makeCode(' ')] if op in ['new', 'typeof', 'delete'] or
                            plusMinus and @first instanceof Op and @first.operator is op
          if (plusMinus and @first instanceof Op) or (op is 'new' and @first.isStatement o)
            @first = new Parens @first
          parts.push @first.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP
          parts.reverse() if @flip
          @joinFragmentArrays parts, ''

        compileYield: (o) ->
          parts = []
          op = @operator
          unless o.scope.parent?
            @error 'yield can only occur inside functions'
          if 'expression' in Object.keys(@first) and not (@first instanceof Throw)
            parts.push @first.expression.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP if @first.expression?
          else
            parts.push [@makeCode "("] if o.level >= LEVEL_PAREN
            parts.push [@makeCode op]
            parts.push [@makeCode " "] if @first.base?.value isnt ''
            parts.push @first.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_OP
            parts.push [@makeCode ")"] if o.level >= LEVEL_PAREN
          @joinFragmentArrays parts, ''

        compilePower: (o) ->

- ¶

  Make a Math.pow call

          pow = new Value new IdentifierLiteral('Math'), [new Access new PropertyName 'pow']
          new Call(pow, [@first, @second]).compileToFragments o

        compileFloorDivision: (o) ->
          floor = new Value new IdentifierLiteral('Math'), [new Access new PropertyName 'floor']
          second = if @second.isComplex() then new Parens @second else @second
          div = new Op '/', @first, second
          new Call(floor, [div]).compileToFragments o

        compileModulo: (o) ->
          mod = new Value new Literal utility 'modulo', o
          new Call(mod, [@first, @second]).compileToFragments o

        toString: (idt) ->
          super idt, @constructor.name + ' ' + @operator

- ¶

  ### In

      exports.In = class In extends Base
        constructor: (@object, @array) ->

        children: ['object', 'array']

        invert: NEGATE

        compileNode: (o) ->
          if @array instanceof Value and @array.isArray() and @array.base.objects.length
            for obj in @array.base.objects when obj instanceof Splat
              hasSplat = yes
              break

- ¶

  `compileOrTest` only if we have an array literal with no splats

            return @compileOrTest o unless hasSplat
          @compileLoopTest o

        compileOrTest: (o) ->
          [sub, ref] = @object.cache o, LEVEL_OP
          [cmp, cnj] = if @negated then [' !== ', ' && '] else [' === ', ' || ']
          tests = []
          for item, i in @array.base.objects
            if i then tests.push @makeCode cnj
            tests = tests.concat (if i then ref else sub), @makeCode(cmp), item.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_ACCESS)
          if o.level < LEVEL_OP then tests else @wrapInBraces tests

        compileLoopTest: (o) ->
          [sub, ref] = @object.cache o, LEVEL_LIST
          fragments = [].concat @makeCode(utility('indexOf', o) + ".call("), @array.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_LIST),
            @makeCode(", "), ref, @makeCode(") " + if @negated then '< 0' else '>= 0')
          return fragments if fragmentsToText(sub) is fragmentsToText(ref)
          fragments = sub.concat @makeCode(', '), fragments
          if o.level < LEVEL_LIST then fragments else @wrapInBraces fragments

        toString: (idt) ->
          super idt, @constructor.name + if @negated then '!' else ''

- ¶

  ### Try

- ¶

  A classic try/catch/finally block.

      exports.Try = class Try extends Base
        constructor: (@attempt, @errorVariable, @recovery, @ensure) ->

        children: ['attempt', 'recovery', 'ensure']

        isStatement: YES

        jumps: (o) -> @attempt.jumps(o) or @recovery?.jumps(o)

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          @attempt  = @attempt .makeReturn res if @attempt
          @recovery = @recovery.makeReturn res if @recovery
          this

- ¶

  Compilation is more or less as you would expect – the finally clause is optional, the catch is not.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          o.indent  += TAB
          tryPart   = @attempt.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP

          catchPart = if @recovery
            generatedErrorVariableName = o.scope.freeVariable 'error', reserve: no
            placeholder = new IdentifierLiteral generatedErrorVariableName
            if @errorVariable
              message = isUnassignable @errorVariable.unwrapAll().value
              @errorVariable.error message if message
              @recovery.unshift new Assign @errorVariable, placeholder
            [].concat @makeCode(" catch ("), placeholder.compileToFragments(o), @makeCode(") {\n"),
              @recovery.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_TOP), @makeCode("\n#{@tab}}")
          else unless @ensure or @recovery
            generatedErrorVariableName = o.scope.freeVariable 'error', reserve: no
            [@makeCode(" catch (#{generatedErrorVariableName}) {}")]
          else
            []

          ensurePart = if @ensure then ([].concat @makeCode(" finally {\n"), @ensure.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_TOP),
            @makeCode("\n#{@tab}}")) else []

          [].concat @makeCode("#{@tab}try {\n"),
            tryPart,
            @makeCode("\n#{@tab}}"), catchPart, ensurePart

- ¶

  ### Throw

- ¶

  Simple node to throw an exception.

      exports.Throw = class Throw extends Base
        constructor: (@expression) ->

        children: ['expression']

        isStatement: YES
        jumps:       NO

- ¶

  A Throw is already a return, of sorts…

        makeReturn: THIS

        compileNode: (o) ->
          [].concat @makeCode(@tab + "throw "), @expression.compileToFragments(o), @makeCode(";")

- ¶

  ### Existence

- ¶

  Checks a variable for existence – not null and not undefined. This is similar to `.nil?` in Ruby, and avoids having to consult a JavaScript truth table.

      exports.Existence = class Existence extends Base
        constructor: (@expression) ->

        children: ['expression']

        invert: NEGATE

        compileNode: (o) ->
          @expression.front = @front
          code = @expression.compile o, LEVEL_OP
          if @expression.unwrap() instanceof IdentifierLiteral and not o.scope.check code
            [cmp, cnj] = if @negated then ['===', '||'] else ['!==', '&&']
            code = "typeof #{code} #{cmp} \"undefined\" #{cnj} #{code} #{cmp} null"
          else

- ¶

  do not use strict equality here; it will break existing code

            code = "#{code} #{if @negated then '==' else '!='} null"
          [@makeCode(if o.level <= LEVEL_COND then code else "(#{code})")]

- ¶

  ### Parens

- ¶

  An extra set of parentheses, specified explicitly in the source. At one time we tried to clean up the results by detecting and removing redundant parentheses, but no longer – you can put in as many as you please.

  Parentheses are a good way to force any statement to become an expression.

      exports.Parens = class Parens extends Base
        constructor: (@body) ->

        children: ['body']

        unwrap    : -> @body
        isComplex : -> @body.isComplex()

        compileNode: (o) ->
          expr = @body.unwrap()
          if expr instanceof Value and expr.isAtomic()
            expr.front = @front
            return expr.compileToFragments o
          fragments = expr.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_PAREN
          bare = o.level < LEVEL_OP and (expr instanceof Op or expr instanceof Call or
            (expr instanceof For and expr.returns)) and (o.level < LEVEL_COND or
              fragments.length <= 3)
          if bare then fragments else @wrapInBraces fragments

- ¶

  ### StringWithInterpolations

- ¶

  Strings with interpolations are in fact just a variation of `Parens` with string concatenation inside.

      exports.StringWithInterpolations = class StringWithInterpolations extends Parens

- ¶

  Uncomment the following line in CoffeeScript 2, to allow all interpolated strings to be output using the ES2015 syntax: unwrap: -> this

        compileNode: (o) ->

- ¶

  This method produces an interpolated string using the new ES2015 syntax, which is opt-in by using tagged template literals. If this StringWithInterpolations isn’t inside a tagged template literal, fall back to the CoffeeScript 1.x output. (Remove this check in CoffeeScript 2.)

          unless o.inTaggedTemplateCall
            return super

- ¶

  Assumption: expr is Value>StringLiteral or Op

          expr = @body.unwrap()

          elements = []
          expr.traverseChildren no, (node) ->
            if node instanceof StringLiteral
              elements.push node
              return yes
            else if node instanceof Parens
              elements.push node
              return no
            return yes

          fragments = []
          fragments.push @makeCode '`'
          for element in elements
            if element instanceof StringLiteral
              value = element.value[1...-1]

- ¶

  Backticks and `${` inside template literals must be escaped.

              value = value.replace /(\\*)(`|\$\{)/g, (match, backslashes, toBeEscaped) ->
                if backslashes.length % 2 is 0
                  "#{backslashes}\\#{toBeEscaped}"
                else
                  match
              fragments.push @makeCode value
            else
              fragments.push @makeCode '${'
              fragments.push element.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN)...
              fragments.push @makeCode '}'
          fragments.push @makeCode '`'

          fragments

- ¶

  ### For

- ¶

  CoffeeScript’s replacement for the for loop is our array and object comprehensions, that compile into for loops here. They also act as an expression, able to return the result of each filtered iteration.

  Unlike Python array comprehensions, they can be multi-line, and you can pass the current index of the loop as a second parameter. Unlike Ruby blocks, you can map and filter in a single pass.

      exports.For = class For extends While
        constructor: (body, source) ->
          {@source, @guard, @step, @name, @index} = source
          @body    = Block.wrap [body]
          @own     = !!source.own
          @object  = !!source.object
          @from    = !!source.from
          @index.error 'cannot use index with for-from' if @from and @index
          source.ownTag.error "cannot use own with for-#{if @from then 'from' else 'in'}" if @own and not @object
          [@name, @index] = [@index, @name] if @object
          @index.error 'index cannot be a pattern matching expression' if @index instanceof Value and not @index.isAssignable()
          @range   = @source instanceof Value and @source.base instanceof Range and not @source.properties.length and not @from
          @pattern = @name instanceof Value
          @index.error 'indexes do not apply to range loops' if @range and @index
          @name.error 'cannot pattern match over range loops' if @range and @pattern
          @returns = false

        children: ['body', 'source', 'guard', 'step']

- ¶

  Welcome to the hairiest method in all of CoffeeScript. Handles the inner loop, filtering, stepping, and result saving for array, object, and range comprehensions. Some of the generated code can be shared in common, and some cannot.

        compileNode: (o) ->
          body        = Block.wrap [@body]
          [..., last] = body.expressions
          @returns    = no if last?.jumps() instanceof Return
          source      = if @range then @source.base else @source
          scope       = o.scope
          name        = @name  and (@name.compile o, LEVEL_LIST) if not @pattern
          index       = @index and (@index.compile o, LEVEL_LIST)
          scope.find(name)  if name and not @pattern
          scope.find(index) if index and @index not instanceof Value
          rvar        = scope.freeVariable 'results' if @returns
          if @from
            ivar = scope.freeVariable 'x', single: true if @pattern
          else
            ivar = (@object and index) or scope.freeVariable 'i', single: true
          kvar        = ((@range or @from) and name) or index or ivar
          kvarAssign  = if kvar isnt ivar then "#{kvar} = " else ""
          if @step and not @range
            [step, stepVar] = @cacheToCodeFragments @step.cache o, LEVEL_LIST, isComplexOrAssignable
            stepNum   = Number stepVar if @step.isNumber()
          name        = ivar if @pattern
          varPart     = ''
          guardPart   = ''
          defPart     = ''
          idt1        = @tab + TAB
          if @range
            forPartFragments = source.compileToFragments merge o,
              {index: ivar, name, @step, isComplex: isComplexOrAssignable}
          else
            svar    = @source.compile o, LEVEL_LIST
            if (name or @own) and @source.unwrap() not instanceof IdentifierLiteral
              defPart    += "#{@tab}#{ref = scope.freeVariable 'ref'} = #{svar};\n"
              svar       = ref
            if name and not @pattern and not @from
              namePart   = "#{name} = #{svar}[#{kvar}]"
            if not @object and not @from
              defPart += "#{@tab}#{step};\n" if step isnt stepVar
              down = stepNum < 0
              lvar = scope.freeVariable 'len' unless @step and stepNum? and down
              declare = "#{kvarAssign}#{ivar} = 0, #{lvar} = #{svar}.length"
              declareDown = "#{kvarAssign}#{ivar} = #{svar}.length - 1"
              compare = "#{ivar} < #{lvar}"
              compareDown = "#{ivar} >= 0"
              if @step
                if stepNum?
                  if down
                    compare = compareDown
                    declare = declareDown
                else
                  compare = "#{stepVar} > 0 ? #{compare} : #{compareDown}"
                  declare = "(#{stepVar} > 0 ? (#{declare}) : #{declareDown})"
                increment = "#{ivar} += #{stepVar}"
              else
                increment = "#{if kvar isnt ivar then "++#{ivar}" else "#{ivar}++"}"
              forPartFragments = [@makeCode("#{declare}; #{compare}; #{kvarAssign}#{increment}")]
          if @returns
            resultPart   = "#{@tab}#{rvar} = [];\n"
            returnResult = "\n#{@tab}return #{rvar};"
            body.makeReturn rvar
          if @guard
            if body.expressions.length > 1
              body.expressions.unshift new If (new Parens @guard).invert(), new StatementLiteral "continue"
            else
              body = Block.wrap [new If @guard, body] if @guard
          if @pattern
            body.expressions.unshift new Assign @name, if @from then new IdentifierLiteral kvar else new Literal "#{svar}[#{kvar}]"
          defPartFragments = [].concat @makeCode(defPart), @pluckDirectCall(o, body)
          varPart = "\n#{idt1}#{namePart};" if namePart
          if @object
            forPartFragments = [@makeCode("#{kvar} in #{svar}")]
            guardPart = "\n#{idt1}if (!#{utility 'hasProp', o}.call(#{svar}, #{kvar})) continue;" if @own
          else if @from
            forPartFragments = [@makeCode("#{kvar} of #{svar}")]
          bodyFragments = body.compileToFragments merge(o, indent: idt1), LEVEL_TOP
          if bodyFragments and bodyFragments.length > 0
            bodyFragments = [].concat @makeCode("\n"), bodyFragments, @makeCode("\n")
          [].concat defPartFragments, @makeCode("#{resultPart or ''}#{@tab}for ("),
            forPartFragments, @makeCode(") {#{guardPart}#{varPart}"), bodyFragments,
            @makeCode("#{@tab}}#{returnResult or ''}")

        pluckDirectCall: (o, body) ->
          defs = []
          for expr, idx in body.expressions
            expr = expr.unwrapAll()
            continue unless expr instanceof Call
            val = expr.variable?.unwrapAll()
            continue unless (val instanceof Code) or
                            (val instanceof Value and
                            val.base?.unwrapAll() instanceof Code and
                            val.properties.length is 1 and
                            val.properties[0].name?.value in ['call', 'apply'])
            fn    = val.base?.unwrapAll() or val
            ref   = new IdentifierLiteral o.scope.freeVariable 'fn'
            base  = new Value ref
            if val.base
              [val.base, base] = [base, val]
            body.expressions[idx] = new Call base, expr.args
            defs = defs.concat @makeCode(@tab), (new Assign(ref, fn).compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_TOP)), @makeCode(';\n')
          defs

- ¶

  ### Switch

- ¶

  A JavaScript switch statement. Converts into a returnable expression on-demand.

      exports.Switch = class Switch extends Base
        constructor: (@subject, @cases, @otherwise) ->

        children: ['subject', 'cases', 'otherwise']

        isStatement: YES

        jumps: (o = {block: yes}) ->
          for [conds, block] in @cases
            return jumpNode if jumpNode = block.jumps o
          @otherwise?.jumps o

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          pair[1].makeReturn res for pair in @cases
          @otherwise or= new Block [new Literal 'void 0'] if res
          @otherwise?.makeReturn res
          this

        compileNode: (o) ->
          idt1 = o.indent + TAB
          idt2 = o.indent = idt1 + TAB
          fragments = [].concat @makeCode(@tab + "switch ("),
            (if @subject then @subject.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN) else @makeCode "false"),
            @makeCode(") {\n")
          for [conditions, block], i in @cases
            for cond in flatten [conditions]
              cond  = cond.invert() unless @subject
              fragments = fragments.concat @makeCode(idt1 + "case "), cond.compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_PAREN), @makeCode(":\n")
            fragments = fragments.concat body, @makeCode('\n') if (body = block.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP).length > 0
            break if i is @cases.length - 1 and not @otherwise
            expr = @lastNonComment block.expressions
            continue if expr instanceof Return or (expr instanceof Literal and expr.jumps() and expr.value isnt 'debugger')
            fragments.push cond.makeCode(idt2 + 'break;\n')
          if @otherwise and @otherwise.expressions.length
            fragments.push @makeCode(idt1 + "default:\n"), (@otherwise.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP)..., @makeCode("\n")
          fragments.push @makeCode @tab + '}'
          fragments

- ¶

  ### If

- ¶

  If/else statements. Acts as an expression by pushing down requested returns to the last line of each clause.

  Single-expression Ifs are compiled into conditional operators if possible, because ternaries are already proper expressions, and don’t need conversion.

      exports.If = class If extends Base
        constructor: (condition, @body, options = {}) ->
          @condition = if options.type is 'unless' then condition.invert() else condition
          @elseBody  = null
          @isChain   = false
          {@soak}    = options

        children: ['condition', 'body', 'elseBody']

        bodyNode:     -> @body?.unwrap()
        elseBodyNode: -> @elseBody?.unwrap()

- ¶

  Rewrite a chain of Ifs to add a default case as the final else.

        addElse: (elseBody) ->
          if @isChain
            @elseBodyNode().addElse elseBody
          else
            @isChain  = elseBody instanceof If
            @elseBody = @ensureBlock elseBody
            @elseBody.updateLocationDataIfMissing elseBody.locationData
          this

- ¶

  The If only compiles into a statement if either of its bodies needs to be a statement. Otherwise a conditional operator is safe.

        isStatement: (o) ->
          o?.level is LEVEL_TOP or
            @bodyNode().isStatement(o) or @elseBodyNode()?.isStatement(o)

        jumps: (o) -> @body.jumps(o) or @elseBody?.jumps(o)

        compileNode: (o) ->
          if @isStatement o then @compileStatement o else @compileExpression o

        makeReturn: (res) ->
          @elseBody  or= new Block [new Literal 'void 0'] if res
          @body     and= new Block [@body.makeReturn res]
          @elseBody and= new Block [@elseBody.makeReturn res]
          this

        ensureBlock: (node) ->
          if node instanceof Block then node else new Block [node]

- ¶

  Compile the `If` as a regular if-else statement. Flattened chains force inner else bodies into statement form.

        compileStatement: (o) ->
          child    = del o, 'chainChild'
          exeq     = del o, 'isExistentialEquals'

          if exeq
            return new If(@condition.invert(), @elseBodyNode(), type: 'if').compileToFragments o

          indent   = o.indent + TAB
          cond     = @condition.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_PAREN
          body     = @ensureBlock(@body).compileToFragments merge o, {indent}
          ifPart   = [].concat @makeCode("if ("), cond, @makeCode(") {\n"), body, @makeCode("\n#{@tab}}")
          ifPart.unshift @makeCode @tab unless child
          return ifPart unless @elseBody
          answer = ifPart.concat @makeCode(' else ')
          if @isChain
            o.chainChild = yes
            answer = answer.concat @elseBody.unwrap().compileToFragments o, LEVEL_TOP
          else
            answer = answer.concat @makeCode("{\n"), @elseBody.compileToFragments(merge(o, {indent}), LEVEL_TOP), @makeCode("\n#{@tab}}")
          answer

- ¶

  Compile the `If` as a conditional operator.

        compileExpression: (o) ->
          cond = @condition.compileToFragments o, LEVEL_COND
          body = @bodyNode().compileToFragments o, LEVEL_LIST
          alt  = if @elseBodyNode() then @elseBodyNode().compileToFragments(o, LEVEL_LIST) else [@makeCode('void 0')]
          fragments = cond.concat @makeCode(" ? "), body, @makeCode(" : "), alt
          if o.level >= LEVEL_COND then @wrapInBraces fragments else fragments

        unfoldSoak: ->
          @soak and this

- ¶

  ## Constants

- ¶

      UTILITIES =

- ¶

  Correctly set up a prototype chain for inheritance, including a reference to the superclass for `super()` calls, and copies of any static properties.

        extend: (o) -> "
          function(child, parent) {
            for (var key in parent) {
              if (#{utility 'hasProp', o}.call(parent, key)) child[key] = parent[key];
            }
            function ctor() {
              this.constructor = child;
            }
            ctor.prototype = parent.prototype;
            child.prototype = new ctor();
            child.__super__ = parent.prototype;
            return child;
          }
        "

- ¶

  Create a function bound to the current value of “this”.

        bind: -> '
          function(fn, me){
            return function(){
              return fn.apply(me, arguments);
            };
          }
        '

- ¶

  Discover if an item is in an array.

        indexOf: -> "
          [].indexOf || function(item) {
            for (var i = 0, l = this.length; i < l; i++) {
              if (i in this && this[i] === item) return i;
            }
            return -1;
          }
        "

        modulo: -> """
          function(a, b) { return (+a % (b = +b) + b) % b; }
        """

- ¶

  Shortcuts to speed up the lookup time for native functions.

        hasProp: -> '{}.hasOwnProperty'
        slice  : -> '[].slice'

- ¶

  Levels indicate a node’s position in the AST. Useful for knowing if parens are necessary or superfluous.

      LEVEL_TOP    = 1  # ...;
      LEVEL_PAREN  = 2  # (...)
      LEVEL_LIST   = 3  # [...]
      LEVEL_COND   = 4  # ... ? x : y
      LEVEL_OP     = 5  # !...
      LEVEL_ACCESS = 6  # ...[0]

- ¶

  Tabs are two spaces for pretty printing.

      TAB = '  '

      SIMPLENUM = /^[+-]?\d+$/

- ¶

  ## Helper Functions

- ¶
- ¶

  Helper for ensuring that utility functions are assigned at the top level.

      utility = (name, o) ->
        {root} = o.scope
        if name of root.utilities
          root.utilities[name]
        else
          ref = root.freeVariable name
          root.assign ref, UTILITIES[name] o
          root.utilities[name] = ref

      multident = (code, tab) ->
        code = code.replace /\n/g, '$&' + tab
        code.replace /\s+$/, ''

      isLiteralArguments = (node) ->
        node instanceof IdentifierLiteral and node.value is 'arguments'

      isLiteralThis = (node) ->
        node instanceof ThisLiteral or
          (node instanceof Code and node.bound) or
          node instanceof SuperCall

      isComplexOrAssignable = (node) -> node.isComplex() or node.isAssignable?()

- ¶

  Unfold a node’s child if soak, then tuck the node under created `If`

      unfoldSoak = (o, parent, name) ->
        return unless ifn = parent[name].unfoldSoak o
        parent[name] = ifn.body
        ifn.body = new Value parent
        ifn